The Bhikkhus' Rules
A Guide for Laypeople
The Theravadin Buddhist Monk's Rules
Compiled and Explained
by
Bhikkhu Ariyesako
Copyright © Sanghaaloka Forest Hermitage 1998
PO Box 152, Kallista,Vic 3791, Australia
Please contact the above address for permission to reprint for free
distribution.
Reprinting for sale is prohibited.
This is a gift of Dhamma and must not be sold
Discipline is for the sake of restraint,
restraint for the sake of freedom from remorse,
freedom from remorse for the sake of joy,
joy for the sake of rapture,
rapture for the sake of tranquillity,
tranquillity for the sake of pleasure,
pleasure for the sake of concentration,
concentration for the sake of knowledge
and vision of things as they are,
knowledge and vision of things as they are
for the sake of disenchantment,
disenchantment for the sake of release,
release for the sake of knowledge and vision of release,
knowledge and vision of release
for the sake of total unbinding without clinging.
-- Parivaara.XII.2 (BMC p.1)
A note about this HTML edition: Pali words in
this book are represented phonetically using ASCII characters following
the
Velthuis scheme. To understand pronunciation, see
Appendix C. -- jtb
Buddhist friends in Malaysia asked me to explain
something about the Vinaya[1] rules that
guide the Buddhist monk's life -- in particular about monks or bhikkhus[2]
of the Theravaada lineage. We monks already have several learned
texts in English to help us so a simplified 'lay person's guide' now seems
in order. (This work therefore deals specifically with men. As Buddhist
female renuciants (nuns) find their place, they will be in the best
position to explain their own rules.)
My aim has been to illustrate those of the monk's rules
that also affect the lay person in some way.[3]
At first it was going to deal only with a few questions but it has grown
with people's suggestions into a more thorough work of reference. (It was
originally circulated as a computer printout, and its positive reception
encouraged this complete reworking and revision, incorporating many of the
suggestions sent to me.) Even so, the best introduction remains a good
practicing bhikkhu who shows that amid the myriad things of the material
world, living the simple life is possible with care -- hence the many
rules -- much as in the Buddha's time.
The original Beginner's Questions section has
been kept (with some revision) and moved to the front as a brief overview
of the sort of questions covered in the book. It refers to later
explanations for more detail, which can be found not only in the main text
but in the End Notes, Footnotes, Glossary and Appendices.
I also have tried to include broader explanations in
the main text so that while the actual rule is faithfully reproduced --
including some translation variations -- the different ways in which monks
actually put it into practice are also covered. Although one might think
one knows all about 'one's bhikkhus', on going elsewhere things are never
quite the same, and sometimes in quite startling ways.
Bhikkhus do sometimes follow the rules in different
ways according to their particular traditions, and these pages may help to
explain the whys and wherefores of their practice. My own perspective
comes from twenty years as a bhikkhu in the forest monasteries of Thailand
(and now more than five years in the 'West') so I am very aware that this
guide needs more information from the traditions in other countries.
As you read through this book, it will become plain how
much I have relied on other people and authorities. I wish especially to
mention my gratitude to Venerable Thanissaro Bhikkhu for his great
contribution through his commentary on the bhikkhus' rules, The
Buddhist Monastic Code; to Venerable Thiradhammo Bhikkhu for his
manuscript of The Heritage of the Sangha; to Venerable Brahmavangso
Bhikkhu for permission to quote from his Vinaya Notes; and to the
Mahamakut Foundation in Bangkok for the works on the monk's rules that
they publish.
Lay people in half a dozen countries helped with advice
and suggestions, and my thanks and appreciation go to all of them. I was
very pleasantly surprised that they found our rules so fascinating and
were willing to give so much of their time to going through the original
manuscript with such care and interest. Yet on reflection, they are right
to feel part of the Dhamma-Vinaya, as the Lord Buddha said:
"Bhikkhus, I praise right practice in both,
whether householder or home-leaver.
"Householder, bhikkhus, and home-leaver, if
rightly practiced, by reason of their right practice, are accomplishing
the true way, the wholesome Dhamma."
HS ch.4 (A.I,69; M.II,197)
Please remember that tolerance is always important even
if one decides to give active support to only one group of monks. The
following pages are offered solely to shed the light of understanding, so
they should not be used to create heat and friction through criticizing
other people's behavior. This is the essence of the Buddha's Teaching. A
big heavy law book only too easily can be thrown at others, so this guide
will try to stay light and non-judgemental. This gives opportunity for
broad-mindedness and flexibility, so that we can include different
interpretations. Thereby one may come better to appreciate and support the
monastic community of one's choice.
Finally, I hope that the same tolerance will be given
to any faults and omissions found in this book. Not being enlightened or a
scholar, I can only offer a gathering of other people's work and hope that
the way I have put it all together does not intrude my own views and
opinions too much. (Paragraphs containing more general or personal
opinions are often marked with "º".) Therefore, any suggestions for
improvement offered in Dhamma are always welcome.
Bhikkhu Ariyesako
August 1998
-
A Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monks' Code of
Conduct. © Bodhinyana Monastery, Lot 1, Kingsbury Drive, Serpentine,
Western Australia 6205, Australia.
-
(1) Buddhist Monastic Code; (2)
Introduction to the Patimokkha Rules. © Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Metta
Forest Monastery, PO Box 1409, Valley Center, CA 92082, USA.
-
Bodhinyanarama's Advice for Guests. ©
Bodhinyanarama Buddhist Monastery, 17 Rakau Grove, Stokes Valley,
Wellington, New Zealand.
-
(1) The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, 3
vols; (2) Navakovaada: Instructions for Newly ordained Bhikkhus
and Saamaneras; (3) Ordination Procedure and the Preliminary
duties of a New Bhikkhu; (4) The Patimokkha, trans. by Ven.
Nyanamoli Thera -- All © Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru
Road, Bangkok 1020, Thailand.
-
The Heritage of the Sangha, The lifestyle and
training of the Buddhist religious community. (Newly revised
Edition), Thiradhammo Bhikkhu, December 1996
-
Observances, © Wat Pah Nanachat, Ban Bung Wai,
Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand.
-
See Bibliography for other
details.
-
Drawing of vandanaa
bowing by Melanie Marshall.
AB = Ajahn Brahmavamso's Notes
BA = Banner of the Arahants
BBC = Burmese Buddhist Culture
BMC =
The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volume I
EN = End Notes
EV = The Entrance to the Vinaya, (Vinayamukha) in 3 vols
HS = The Heritage of the Sangha
Nv = Navakovaada: Instructions for newly ordained Bhikkhus and
Saamaneras
Nis. Paac. = nisaggiya paacittiya offence
OP = Ordination Procedure
Paac. = paacittiya offence
Paar. = paaraajika offence
Paat. = Paa.timokkha text and English translation (1966 or
1969 edition)
Sa"ngh. = sa"nghaadisesa offence
The Teaching of the Buddha is concerned with more than
intellectual knowledge for it needs to be experienced as truth in one's
own life. The Buddha often called his Teaching the Dhamma-Vinaya and when
he passed away he left these as the guide for all of us who followed. As
Venerable Thiradhammo writes:
"In simple terms we could say that while Dhamma
represented the principles of Truth, the Vinaya represented the most
efficacious lifestyle for the realization of that Truth. Or, the Vinaya
was that way of life which enshrined the principles of Truth in the
practicalities of living within the world." (HS Part 2)
For the bhikkhu, the Vinaya helps to highlight actions
and speech, and show up their significance. It brings an awareness of how
he is intervening in the world, how he is affecting other people. For
better? For worse? With what intention?
Of course, such an awareness is necessary for every
human being, not just Buddhist monks. This is why the Buddha bequeathed to
us the Five, the Eight and the Ten Precepts[4]
-- as well as the bhikkhu's 227 rules of the Paatimokkha. These precepts
and rules remain as pertinent today as they were 2,500 years ago for they
restore the focus back to the human being, to how actions and words affect
individuals and the world. While the particulars may have changed, the
fundamentals remain the same.
Those who take the Buddha's Teaching seriously become
ever more aware of their actions and speech, and how they match up against
the Five Precepts. They then might start to realize the advantage in
occasionally keeping the Eight Precepts -- perhaps on the weekly
Observance Day[5] -- and become more interested
in the bhikkhu's Rule and how its precepts come together into a whole way
of life.
This compilation, therefore, is for anyone interested
in bhikkhus and how to relate to them. Some might think that the
Theravaada lineage follows an overly traditionalist[6]
approach but then, it does happen to be the oldest living major
tradition.[7] A slight caution therefore for
anyone completely new to the ways of monasticism, for it is an approach to
dealing with life that may appear radically different for this modern day
and age. The best introduction, perhaps essential for a true
understanding, is meeting with a practicing bhikkhu who should manifest
and reflect the peaceful and joyous qualities of the bhikkhu's way of
life.
Buddhist monks and nuns first received the going-forth
into the Holy Life from the Buddha himself, more than two and a half
thousand years ago in India. Since then, their influence has been felt
over much of Asia. The countries of Sri Lanka and South East Asia have
been profoundly affected by the Theravadin School of Buddhism, which looks
back to the original Teachings as recorded in the Paali[8]
scriptures. Buddhism was often first introduced to a new country when
bhikkhus were invited to come and teach the new religion by the indigenous
ruler. This process now continues throughout the world, although the
invitation nowadays comes more often from local Buddhists.
Buddhism is justly admired for its appreciation of
tolerance and broad-mindedness, with a history generally unblemished by
heretical infighting. This has resulted in a wide spectrum of practices,
from the old Theravaada to the Zen of Japan and the Vajrayana of Tibet.
Even between the different Theravadin countries and Schools there are
slight variations in the ways the bhikkhus understand and practice the
Vinaya Rule. Such differences have sometimes confused lay devotees so this
book is also an attempt to offer a clearer understanding about the
responsibilities of the Theravadin bhikkhu's life and those of the lay
devotee.
When the Buddha was about to finally pass away and
leave his followers, rather than appoint an individual to take his place
he said this:
"Whatever Dhamma and Vinaya I have pointed out and
formulated for you, that will be your Teacher when I am
gone"(Mahaaparinibbaana Sutta, [D.16])
More than twenty-five centuries have now gone by;
empires have come and gone, great movements and ideologies have flared up
and been lost. Yet on a deeper level under all of this, the Dhamma and
Vinaya have been quietly guiding the communities of Buddhist monks. Why
has it withstood the test of time so well? Why has it been so successful?
Perhaps it is because the Lord Buddha understood the basic human condition
of every time or place; he knew our predicament and failings, and he could
show the way out to those of us who follow so long after him.
-- I. A.
º This section illustrates the origins of this
book, for it is a selection of the unedited questions that were first sent
to me. I have decided to make it an entry-point for those people
completely new to the Vinaya Rule rather than relegate it to an appendix
(or omit it altogether). The answers often repeat or point to information
contained later in the full text. Those people already familiar with the
rules can skip these Beginner's and Frequently Asked Questions and go to
the relevant section for more details.
Q 1: "Why does a monk wear the
robe? Why do some wear brown robes and others wear yellowish brown?"
A: The Lord Buddha gave this reflection about
why a monk wears a robe:
"Properly considering the robe, I use it: simply
to ward off cold, to ward off heat, to ward off the touch of flies,
mosquitoes, simply for the purpose of covering the parts of the body
which cause shame." (OP p.46)
In the Lord Buddha's time, 2,500 years ago, clothing[9]
was made without complex machinery. (Although simple 'sewing-frames' are
mentioned in the texts, which the monks would have used at robe-making
(Ka.thina) time.) So the pattern of the robe is very simple and
designed so that it can be made up out of patches of cloth, for discarded
rags were often used after washing and dyeing.
This 'yellow robe' is considered the banner of the
arahant and emblem of Buddhism. For the ordinary Theravaadin bhikkhu
it is a privilege to be able to wear this robe, continuing the tradition
and practicing to be worthy of it. There are rules as to the robes' size,
color, how they are sewn, type of cloth used, etc., and how bhikkhus can
acquire them. (See The Robe.)
The color of the robes depends on the dye used. Until
very recently, this would have been natural vegetable dye found in the
jungle from roots or trees. (In NE Thailand, for example, we used the
heartwood of the jack-fruit tree.) Nowadays chemical dyes are more used
and sometimes give that more vivid orange color that one sees in Bangkok.
The color white is used by Buddhist devotees to show
their commitment to keeping the Precepts -- usually the Eight Precepts --
on Observance Days. (White robes are also worn by the anagarika, or
postulant before he becomes a monk.)
Q 2: "Why do monks eat from the
bowl? Can lay people serve soup to monks in normal bowls? Can they serve
fruits or desserts on plates instead of putting them in the monk's bowl?"
A: The Lord Buddha gave this reflection about
finding and eating food:
"Properly considering alms food, I use it: not
playfully, nor for intoxication, nor for putting on weight, nor for
beautification; but simply for the survival and continuance of this
body, for ending its afflictions, for the support of the chaste life,
(thinking) I will destroy old feelings (of hunger) and not create new
feelings (from overeating). Thus I will maintain myself, be blameless,
and live in comfort." (OP p.46)
The alms bowl is another practical symbol of Buddhism,
and, like the robes, another requisite of the bhikkhu. Although every
bhikkhu is given an alms bowl (and a set of robes) when he becomes a monk,
not all of them will actually go on an alms round and only a minority --
usually they are the forest meditation bhikkhus -- will eat from their
bowl sitting on the floor. Therefore many monks will eat using plates and
dishes, while some will eat sitting on the floor at a small table and
others at a normal western-style table. One should not feel shy about
asking a monk as to his normal way of eating and then fit in with that.
Those forest bhikkhus who keep the austere practices
(dhuta"nga or tudong) [10] will be
stricter about only using one eating vessel. This can simplify life and
remind the bhikkhu that although food is necessary for bodily health he
does not have to indulge in an obsession with taste. (It also saves
washing-up time.)
Q 3: "Why do monks live in the
forest?"
A: In India during the Lord Buddha's time much
of the land was covered in forests and groves and this was where the
wandering mendicants of the different orders would pursue their religious
practices. The Lord Buddha spoke of the 'foot of a tree' as the basic
shelter for bhikkhus, and this is usually still affirmed to every newly
ordained bhikkhu. Later, monasteries were established and well-endowed,
and the focus shifted to a more settled life. Mostly only the 'forest
monks' now live in the forest where it is quiet and conducive to
meditation. Many more monks will live in the village monastery or go to a
monastery in the town to study the scriptures.
The Lord Buddha said this about the basics of shelter,
whether in the forest or city:
"Properly considering the lodging, I use it:
simply to ward off cold, to ward off heat, to ward off the touch of
flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun and reptiles; simply for protection from
the inclemencies of weather and for the enjoyment of seclusion." (OP
p.46)
Q 4: "How does one who wants to
become a monk find out how to go about getting the robe and bowl, etc.?"
Q 5: "What is the procedure for a lay man to
ordain?"
Q 6: "How does one who wants to sponsor any newly
ordained monk/nun with the necessities go about doing so?"
Q 7: "How does a teacher assess and decide if one
is suitable for ordination?"
A: In fact getting the robes and bowl is not so
much a problem for once the candidate is accepted by a preceptor, the
preceptor will know where suitable requisites may be found. The question
should be more about the qualities necessary to become a monk and I have
explained some of these in the section on Becoming a
Bhikkhu.
If the candidate's intention is right and he is not
disqualified by other factors, he should find a senior monk who can advise
him on the places where he might ordain and perhaps recommend him to a
preceptor. If the candidate lives in a non-Buddhist country, he can write
for details to the country where he is interested in staying. Bhikkhus are
often traveling and giving Dhamma talks around the world and they would
generally be very happy to make suggestions about this.
In certain communities there is a 'postulancy' period
when the candidate first wears white robes as an anagarika[11]
and after a year (or two) may then be given either novice (saama."nera)
or full bhikkhu ordination. Once he is accepted for this, all the
requisites should be provided. (In some monasteries the candidate is
provided with the cloth but has to learn to sew his own robes.)
Similarly for the lay person wanting to help supply
requisites to the new monk, the best way is to ask details from a senior
monk who will explain and help. In some Buddhist countries there are even
special shops to supply these requisites but whether this is suitable will
depend on the monastery of ordination.
Also, see the book Ordination Procedure and the
Preliminary Duties of a New Bhikkhu.
Q 8: "How does a lay woman
ordain? Does she become ordained only by bhikkhunii?"
A: The Theravadin lineage no longer has an
'officially recognized' bhikkhunii-ordination. There are other
forms for lay women that still involve 'leaving the home life' and keeping
Eight or Ten Precepts as a dasasiila mata nun. Finding a suitable
place is quite difficult but several groups are trying to develop places
conducive to Dhamma practice for such nuns. (For example, Amaravati
Buddhist Monastery in England. (See also Buddhist Nuns.)
Q 9: "Instead of letting the
monks go on alms-round during rainy days, can the lay people request to
bring daana [the food offering] to the monks?"
A: Some bhikkhus take a daily alms-round as a
special practice (dhuta"nga or tudong) and will normally
always want to go. Many other monks will be happy to receive food brought
to them. Please ask or observe how the monk practices. There is no harm in
offering to bring the food, for if the monk prefers to walk on an
alms-round he can explain about that.
Q 10: "Is there a minimum and
maximum number of layers [of clothing] a monk can wear? Does the rule
alter with the weather?"
A: There is a minimum in that the bhikkhu must
be properly and modestly dressed, especially in public. (See
Socializing and Wrong Resort and End Notes
70 and 71.) During the cold season
in India, the Buddha allowed a double-layered outer robe (sa"nghaati)
to be used and so -- using the Great Standards[12]
as a guide -- in even colder climates extra layers may be allowable. In
countries where hypothermia may be a danger, the use of extra layers seems
sensible -- especially if this cuts down on heating and medical expenses.
(That a bhikkhu lives as frugally as possible is a major aspect of the
Vinaya.) However, it is generally felt very important that the
traditional robes remain the basic dress and 'extra layers' should not
obscure this.
Q 11: "Is it [acceptable] that
the ordained one requests some basic necessities such as food, drink,
medicine, shelter, blankets, reasonable form of transport due to weakness
(health reason)? How should one approach a monk or nun if one wants to
offer necessities to them?"
A: There are definite conditions that allow a
bhikkhu to ask for help. These would be when he is ill, or in danger, or
when he has been formally offered help. See How
to Help a Bhikkhu -- Invitation for a fuller explanation.
Q 12: "Is it [acceptable] for
one to offer basic necessities to monks or nuns without first asking
them?"
A: Yes, generosity is a virtue highly praised by
the Buddha and was often the first virtue he mentioned. It goes against
the general modern selfish attitude of 'getting is better than giving' and
leads on to contentment and the calm that can lead to deep meditation and
wisdom. So, if it makes one happy to make an offering then one can do so
without asking first. However, the offering should also be endowed with
wisdom so that one gives something that is useful and not beyond one's
family's means.
Q 13: "Why do we bow to
monks/nuns and the Buddha Statue?"
A: The yellow robe worn by monks is an emblem
and reminder of the Triple Gem, as is the Buddha Statue. Therefore one is
really bowing to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, not to some person or
statue. There are two aspects to bowing -- the bodily action and the mind.
If one bows because it gives one the opportunity to demonstrate one's
faith in the Triple Gem, because it seems the right thing to do, and
because it leads the mind to calm, then it will be beneficial. If one bows
without reason or because one feels that one must do so for appearances
sake, then it is a rather empty gesture. (Even so one's appreciation can
grow.)
When I bow three times to the Buddha Statue or to
senior monks, I mentally recollect 'Buddho', then 'Dhammo'
and then 'Sa"ngho' and also have mindfulness of the bodily posture
as it bends forward and the head touches the floor. (See
Etiquette and End Note 120)
However, in Western countries this is often misunderstood and can be the
source of quite a lot of embarrassment. It is up to the persons themselves
to decide what is appropriate under the different circumstances.
Q 14: "Is it [acceptable] to
put two hands together [in añjalii] when paying respect to
monks/nuns and Buddha Statue, or should one bow to show more respect?"
A: One should show respect from one's heart in
the way that seems best to oneself, recollecting the Triple Gem and doing
it mindfully. No good monk (or Buddha statue) is going to take offence if
one does not bow.
Q 15: "Why do monks shave
their heads?"
A: When the prince who was to become the Buddha
left his palace to seek a way beyond aging, sickness and death, it is said
that one of the first things that he did was to "shave off his hair and
beard and put on the yellow cloth". Buddhist monks always completely shave
their head and beard, showing their commitment to the Holy Life
(Brahmacariya) of one gone forth into the homeless life. (In India
some ascetics tear out their hair, while others never touch it so that it
becomes a tangled mass.)
A rule states that a bhikkhu should not allow his hair
to grow beyond a certain length or time, so he will shave usually at least
once a fortnight or month, sometimes more frequently. To do this he uses
his razor, which is also one of his requisites.
'Hair-of-the-head' (kesaa) is one of the five
parts of the body mentioned in the ordination ceremony and is used to
recollect the true nature of the body. The bhikkhu is also not allowed to
dye or pluck out any gray hairs, for they are useful reminders of old-age
and impermanence. (Just consider how much time and money is wasted by
people trying to make their hair remain beautiful and young-looking.)
FAQ 1: "When a bhikkhu is
sick and especially so in emergency cases, is he allowed to be attended to
by female medical staff; e.g., female nurse, woman doctor, especially if
the woman doctor is the only doctor/surgeon on duty? How does the Vinaya
allow for this?"
FAQ 2: "It has been observed
that in the Burmese, Sri Lankan, Tibetan and Mahayana traditions, women
are allowed to make an offering directly to the monks. Yet Thai Buddhist
monks are not allowed to accept offerings directly from women. Is it
because it is against the Vinaya rules or a different interpretation of
the rules?"
A 1&2: The Vinaya Rule specifies that if a
bhikkhu touches or is touched by a woman, it is an offence -- a very
serious offence -- only if the bhikkhu is "overcome by lust, with altered
mind". However, the practicing bhikkhu knows that as his mind changes so
quickly, he has to be extremely cautious about involving himself in
doubtful situations. It is better to be safe than sorry, even if this may
seem over-scrupulous. In emergency situations the bhikkhu will have to
decide for himself and be sure to take care of his thoughts.
In Thailand it is a tradition (not strictly a rule)
that the monk uses a 'receiving cloth' to emphasize that there is no
touching. (For more about these questions, see
Intimacy -- Touching, How to make an
Offering, and End Note 85.)
FAQ 3: "What is the rule if
an eight-precepter unintentionally comes into [direct physical] contact
with another lay person or eight-precepter or ten-precepter or monk or nun
of opposite gender?"
A: As with the preceding cases with bhikkhus,
there is no fault if there is no wrong intention.
FAQ 4: "It is mentioned in
the Vinaya rules that a monk is not allowed to reside under the same roof
with a woman. How does that apply to multistoried (condominiums, flats,
apartments) and multi-compartment buildings (terrace houses), where the
flats, terrace houses, share one roof?"
A: This has become a complex question with
various interpretations because of modern conditions. The spirit of the
rule is very important -- avoiding possibilities of intimacy -- while the
interpretation will depend on the monk and the circumstances. In countries
without proper monasteries there will always have to be something of a
compromise. (See Staying Together for a
discussion of this.)
FAQ 5: "The Vinaya rules
disallow monks from touching or handling money. As such, in Buddhist
countries monks must have a Kappiya [attendant] to handle money for
them. However, if a monk has to travel and does not have a Kappiya,
under such circumstances do the Vinaya rules allow him to handle money
personally? This is a problem especially in non-Buddhist countries."
A: While it may be a problem or inconvenience,
the rules are there to protect and remind the monk about dangerous,
unskillful actions. If the monk becomes increasingly involved with money
there is a tendency for the whole of his bhikkhu-life to be compromised --
and that would be a far greater problem. Soon after the Final
Passing Away of the Lord Buddha this sort of question had already become a
major controversy and it is now even more complex under modern conditions.
However, modern conditions also have brought their own
assistance to keeping these rules. For instance, a bhikkhu can be given an
air ticket and travel around the world (if need be) without having any
money or attendant. He will need to be met at the airport and helped in
the normal way, but that should be natural if he has been invited to come
by the lay group. (He should not really be traveling otherwise.) And, of
course, a monk can use postage stamps and 'telephone-cards' that add
convenience to communicating -- when it is appropriate. (See the section
on Money, especially the
Me.n.daka Allowance.)
FAQ 6: "Is there a Vinaya
rule that states that once a person becomes a monk, he is not allowed to
disrobe? If he is allowed to disrobe, is there anywhere in the Vinaya that
sets the maximum number of times he is allowed to do so. If so, under what
circumstances is he allowed to disrobe?"
A: I know of no place in the Vinaya that states
a bhikkhu cannot disrobe. If he no longer has any interest in the
bhikkhu-life, the tendency will be for him to become lax and a bad example
for others. His Dhamma friends therefore will try to re-fire his
enthusiasm. However, if that is not possible, becoming a good layman may
be better than being a bad monk. (Nevertheless, in some countries there is
a cultural expectation of 'ordaining for life' and a corresponding stigma
attached to disrobing.) There is a tradition (but not a rule) about a
bhikkhu not re-ordaining more than seven times. (See
Disrobing.)
FAQ 7: "The Vinaya states
that monks are not supposed to eat once the sun has passed its zenith.
Still, what happens if they are in countries such as regions of the North
or South Poles, e.g., Norway, Alaska, where the sun never sets for six
months and for the next six months, there is no sun."
A: I understand that the zenith here means when
the sun reaches the highest point in its arc across the sky. In most
habitable areas of the globe this arc may be low to the horizon but it
should still be possible to follow the rule. And if bhikkhus ever reach
the polar regions[13] they will have the
Great Standards to guide them. (More
specifically, see Meal Time for time
limits.)
FAQ 8: "It is stated in the
Vinaya that when a lay person offers fruit to a monk, he has to make a cut
on one of the fruits to make it permissible for the monk to accept. How
did this rule originate? Also, lay people, when offering fruit juices to
monks after midday, are not allowed to offer fruit juices from fruits
larger than the size of a fist. Is this in the Vinaya and why is it so?"
A: At the time of the Buddha, some lay people
complained that the monks destroyed the 'life' in seeds. Therefore lay
people can be asked by the monk if it is allowable for him to eat those
fruits. In some monasteries (not all) this is done by the lay people
cutting them. (See Offering Fruit: Kappiya
and End Note 91.)
It is the Commentary to the Vinaya that mentions about
'great fruits'. This practice, however, is not followed in every
monastery. (See Fruit Juices.)
FAQ 9: "In Thailand, it has
been observed that Thai Buddhist monks are allowed to drink tea, cocoa,
coffee (but without milk) after midday. But in some other Buddhist
countries like Burma, monks are not allowed to do this. Is this part of
the Vinaya rules or is this just tradition, custom, or local practice? If
it is in the Vinaya, how do you explain the differences in
interpretation?"
A: The fourth of the Recollections of the
Bhikkhu's Requisites is:
"Properly considering medicinal requisites for
curing the sick, I use them: simply to ward off any pains of illness
that have arisen, and for the maximum freedom from disease." (OP p.47)
There is an allowance in the Paali texts that
'medicinal-tonics' can be taken in the afternoon while
'lifetime-medicines' may be consumed any time they are needed. (See
Lifetime Medicines.)
There are different interpretations and practices about
how ill a bhikkhu has to be for it to be allowable to take such
'medicines'. Some bhikkhus will not take anything other than pure water,
while some will over-stretch the Rule to even drinking 'medicinal'
food-drinks (e.g., Ovaltine) in the afternoon. Some bhikkhus will consider
tea-leaves allowable (as 'herbs') while some will see it as food or as a
'stimulant' (caffeine) and therefore not appropriate. Also, the ordinary
rural villagers of South East Asia (until very recently) would have had no
tea or coffee to drink, so such items could be considered quite a luxury.
It will depend on local conditions and interpretations, which are allowed
for in the Vinaya through the Great Standards. (See
also Lifetime Medicines.)
FAQ 10: "Can a monk retain
property that he had as a lay person? Also, can a monk receive property
that has been passed to him as inheritance? Is a monk also allowed to
accept property donated to him by lay devotees and which has been
transferred to his name? What is the Vinaya's stance on this? Does the
Vinaya also allow for monks to sell/transact property that has been
donated to them in order to buy, for instance, another piece of land in an
area that is more suitable for spiritual activities?"
A: This is a complicated question. If there is a
steward who does the arranging for the bhikkhu in the proper manner then
certain things would be allowable. (See What
does a Bhikkhu Possess.) However, there are very strict guidelines
about this. (Please see the various rules about
Bhikkhus and Wealth.)
Practically speaking, bhikkhus in Thailand are not
ordered to renounce all their property, etc., when they receive
ordination. (As mentioned elsewhere, the majority of bhikkhus in Thailand
will return to lay life within a certain period.) Bhikkhus who are serious
about dedicating their life to the Holy Life will obviously take the Lord
Buddha as their example and like Him renounce all that is worldly.
There are specific rules, not covered in this work,
about Community land and property, and the different ways they are
managed. (However, see also Wrongly Received Gifts.)
FAQ 11: "Does the Vinaya
state that monks cannot take nuns and lay people as their teachers? If
this is so, what is the reason for this?"
A: The taking of a Teacher (aacariya) by
a bhikkhu and living in dependence (nissaya) on him can only be
between bhikkhus. (See Becoming a Bhikkhu;
End Note 24 on the qualities of a Teacher.) And even
according to the bhikkhunii's own Rule, in the time of the Lord Buddha,
she was not allowed to teach bhikkhus. However, this does not mean that a
bhikkhu cannot learn from others.
FAQ 12: "Are monks allowed
to own and/or drive vehicles? Is this allowed by the Vinaya? If it does
not go against the Vinaya, would it still be socially acceptable, given
the monk's spiritual status in society?"
A: There is a specific rule against bhikkhus
owning vehicles. Obviously, 'motor vehicles' were not available in the
Buddha's time and most travel would have been on foot. However, there was
the case:
"...when the group-of-six bhikkhus went in a
vehicle yoked with cows and bulls, they were criticized by the lay
people. The Buddha then established a fault of Wrong-doing for a bhikkhu
to travel in a vehicle; later illness was exempted from this
guideline...
"Traveling in a vehicle in the Buddha's time was
an extravagance. A strict application of this training in Thailand is
not allowing bhikkhus to drive or own vehicles, and (officially) not to
ride on motorcycles." (HS ch.17)
Bhikkhus were allowed to use ferry boats, etc. (In
Thailand, bhikkhus from riverside monasteries will go on alms round by
boat.)
FAQ 13: "Does the Vinaya
permit monks to practice herbal, traditional or ayurvedic medicine?"
A: In Thailand, I understand that one cannot be
officially registered as a herbal doctor while still a bhikkhu. While
providing medicines for one's fellow monks is very much allowable, it is
definitely wrong that a monk dispenses medicine for reward. (See
Wrong Livelihood and End Note
115.)
FAQ 14: "When a monk commits
a paaraajika offence, do the lay people have the right to ask him
to disrobe? What is the usual procedure as stated in the Vinaya? What
happens when a monk has been proven to have committed a paaraajika
offence, yet refuses to disrobe in spite of demands from lay devotees and
there is no Sangha Council to enforce the demands, as is the case in
non-Buddhist countries? Under such circumstances, what do the lay people
do?"
A: If a bhikkhu commits a paaraajika
offence he is 'defeated' and no longer a bhikkhu even if he is wearing
robes. The Community of bhikkhus will have nothing to do with him and will
expel him. (See Disrobing and End Note
31.) However, if the accused 'bhikkhu' does not admit
to the offence and it cannot be proved, the results of kamma must be
allowed to run their own course. Buddhism has never engaged in violent
witch hunts. (See Strictness and Blaming Others.)
And for how lay people dealt with stubborn monks in the Buddha's time, see
Disputes.
FAQ 15: "What questions
should one ask a monk when offerings of requisites are made; and to what
extent is a monk limited (and why) when making his reply; and when is it
all right to ask details of preferences and specifications; and how to
find out what is appropriate if the robed person finds it difficult or is
unable to mention what is required?"
A: Generally, the right-practicing bhikkhu will
be a person of few wants for he is trying to go to the ending of all
desire. However, there may be certain things he may need but may not
mention until he is sure that the donors are completely sincere in their
invitation. If the donor makes specific suggestions, the bhikkhu may
refuse, he may accept, or he may remain silent -- and such silence may
very well be a positive response (as it was in the Lord Buddha's time).
Therefore, as the donor gets to know the bhikkhu he or she will become
more sensitive about what is needed and what is appropriate -- and be able
to interpret any 'silence' in the right way. (See the section on
Invitation and Beginner's
Question 12 above.)
The awakened mind has gone beyond greed, hatred and
delusion. Yet for those of us who are still striving towards this end such
unskillful tendencies have to be addressed. We need guidelines to help us
become more aware of our actions and speech, so that we do not go off the
Buddha's Middle Way. For a start there are the Five Precepts, then the
Eight and the Ten Precepts,[4] and then the
227 Paa.timokkha Rules of the bhikkhu.
The Five Precepts are basic human ethical standards --
answering the fundamental questions of 'what do I do, what should I say?'
These standards are further refined by the Eight Precepts, which allow the
lay person to live a life closer to that of the monk -- even if
temporarily.[14] This may then lead to the
Ten Precepts of a novice (saama.nera) or of a dasasiila mata
nun.
The Vinaya and Paa.timokkha rules were set down
by the Buddha in response to specific incidents that occurred either
within the Community of bhikkhus or through their interaction with the lay
community. An explanation of the original circumstances that led to the
formulation of a rule is usually included in the scriptural text as an
introduction to that rule. The emphasis therefore is always on Dhamma
practice with the Precepts or Vinaya as a vital guide and support.
When a bhikkhu takes up the training rules, he might
find that past habits and tendencies still cause problems -- especially in
a non-supportive environment. Of course, staying within a suitable
environment will simplify this, which is a major reason for some rules.
Therefore it is important to remember that the bhikkhu never practices in
isolation and always needs the support and understanding of lay Buddhists.
There is the need for mutual support and encouragement between the lay and
bhikkhu communities. Knowing something of the rules should enable the lay
person to appreciate this.
Buddhism has been said[15]
to be 'deeply rooted in a country when a local young man can become a
bhikkhu, learn and then recite the Paa.timokkha Rule in his own
country'. This originally referred to Sri Lanka thousands of years ago but
now that Buddhism is moving to the West such conditions are starting to
appear there, too.
The Bhikkhu Sa"ngha or Community of monks is
probably the oldest of any of the institutions that have remained faithful
to their origins and spread world-wide.[7]
While scholars like to track its historical development from country to
country, we could also start with a particular bhikkhu and trace the
thread back through preceptor after preceptor to the Buddha Himself. Its
many remarkable features enable men from different classes, backgrounds
and cultures to live together in harmony and fellowship. Most important,
it offers ideal conditions for the individual to train and meditate, to
awaken to Dhamma, which is the whole point of the Buddha's Teaching.
The first part[16] of the
ordination[17] procedure for bhikkhus is
known as the Going Forth into Homelessness (pabbajjaa). If
it finishes with just that -- without going on to the Questioning
of the candidate and the Acceptance of him by all the gathered
bhikkhus into the Bhikkhu Sa"ngha -- the candidate is known as a
saama.nera or novice. This is usually the case when the candidate is
less than the twenty years of age necessary to become a bhikkhu. A very
young boy is not allowed to become a novice either, but the minimum age
will vary according to place.[18]
A saama.nera wears the 'yellow robe' like a full
bhikkhu -- except he does not have the sa"nghaa.ti
(double-thickness robe) -- and leads a very similar life. In some places a
period as a novice forms part of the preliminary training to become a
bhikkhu, while some men decide to remain saama.nera for various
reasons. The saama.nera keeps the Ten Precepts and the 75 Training
Rules (sekhiya) and some other rules of the bhikkhu. Later, when he
is ready and if he is old enough, he can ask the bhikkhu community for
full ordination (upasampadaa).
In the Pali texts, when a man decided to become a
bhikkhu, he is often quoted as saying:
"Confined is the household life, a path of dust;
the going forth is open and spacious. Not easy is it living in a house
to lead the religious life absolutely fulfilled and purified, as
polished as mother-of-pearl. Suppose I were to shave off my hair and
beard, clothe myself in ochre robes and go forth from homelife into
homelessness?" (HS ch.19)
However, anyone wishing to become a bhikkhu must
fulfill certain conditions about which he will be questioned during the
actual ordination procedure. The candidate must be male and at least
twenty years old. He must never have committed any grievous crimes and, if
previously ordained, he must not have been guilty of any Defeater
(Paaraajika) offences or have entered some other religion without
disrobing first. (See BMC pp.88-89) He should also be of good
reputation; fit and healthy enough to carry out the duties of a bhikkhu;
not in debt; not subject to government service; and have permission from
parents or guardian.
The Ordination ceremony requires a prescribed boundary
(siima), a preceptor (upajjhaaya) and a quorum of bhikkhus
to validate the formal Sangha Act. In the formal procedure the candidate
is examined as to the necessary qualities[19]
and, if all the bhikkhus are satisfied, they receive him into the Sangha,
the Community of Bhikkhus.
It is in this way that yet another link is added to the
bhikkhu-lineage. Henceforth, the new bhikkhu can participate (and make up
the necessary quorum) in future assemblies and help receive other new
bhikkhus -- as bhikkhus have continued to do for two and a half thousand
years. (See EV,I,p.4; OP)
When a candidate requests full admission to the
Community[20] (after the saama.nera
ordination) he does not make any 'lifetime vows' but offers himself for
training and instruction under his Preceptor's guidance. At the end of the
ordination ceremony, the Preceptor will immediately instruct the new
bhikkhu (or arrange that he is properly taught) about the Paa.timokkha
Rule and the other principles that all bhikkhus should follow and
observe.[21]
For the first five years a bhikkhu is called navaka
('new one') and he must live 'dependent' (nissaya) on a senior
bhikkhu -- either his preceptor or teacher (aacariya) -- training
in the ways of a bhikkhu. The preceptor and the new monk should be kind
and helpful to each other, in almost a father-and-son relationship. A new
bhikkhu who no longer lives under his preceptor must take another senior
bhikkhu as his teacher and depend on him instead.[22]
For the next five years after his navaka period,
the bhikkhu is called majjhima, ('one in the middle') and he is
allowed to live by himself if he is accomplished in certain qualities.[23]
When a bhikkhu has completed ten Rains he is called
Thera, which can be translated as 'an elder who is worthy of respect'.
If he is also accomplished in certain extra qualities,[24]
he is allowed to give ordination as preceptor, to be a teacher, and have
young monks live in dependence on him.
Throughout South East Asia, it is very common for young
men to become bhikkhus (or novices) for a short period of their life.
Traditionally this occurs during the three months of the Rains Retreat,
after which they disrobe and return to lay life, hopefully knowing and
appreciating much more about the bhikkhu life -- and probably having
friends still in the monastery whom they can visit for advice. In Thailand
this means that while a small proportion of bhikkhus will spend all their
life in the robe, many more Thai men will have tasted the life.
Such an ordination is also a rite of passage, for it is
a family, even a village event with many people joining in to see the
young man off into this new stage of his life.[25]
The new monk will frequently visit his former home on his daily alms round
so his ordination has a wider influence, showing the continuing
possibility of living the 'Holy Life' started by the Lord Buddha so long
ago.
It may also be considered a way for the young man to
show his gratitude to his parents and grandparents, for they are thought
to participate and share in the 'merit' he makes through his ordination.
Also, some men might ordain for a time before marriage -- one way for the
young man to prove his maturity to his fiancée -- and then again later in
life after retirement.
The bhikkhu's year is structured around the three
months from July to October. In Asia this is the time of the monsoon
season -- the central period of the agricultural year -- when the paddy
fields are flooded and the main rice crop is planted. In the Buddha's time
(and until modern times), people were less likely to travel around during
this period because the roads were bad and there was a danger of crop
damage. So the bhikkhus likewise suspended their mendicant wanderings and
had to settle in one place.
A bhikkhu must make a formal determination to be
resident at dawn every day in that place for the whole three month period.
(There are exceptional circumstances when he may be allowed to be away,
but even then he should return within seven days.)[26]
These three months are often a special time of study or meditation and so
are sometimes known as the Rains Retreat or Rains Residence.
This is also the normal time when the young men of South East Asia become
monks for the traditional three month period (see above).
A bhikkhu often measures the length of time he has been
a monk according to how many Rains Residences he has undertaken. Therefore
instead of saying he has been 'ordained seven years' he might say he has
been ordained for 'seven Rains'.
Living the bhikkhu-life properly, following the
Buddha's Teaching, requires full commitment and sustained effort. If this
is lost and his Dhamma friends cannot rekindle his interest, the bhikkhu
is always at liberty to return to lay life. There are no lifetime vows, so
perhaps living a good lay life is better than being lax in keeping the
bhikkhu's rules. Nevertheless, in some countries there is a cultural
expectation of 'ordaining for life' and a corresponding stigma attached to
disrobing.
"A bhikkhu who is tired of the practice of the
Brahma-cariya [Holy Life] and wishes to return to the state of being a
lay man may do this by taking leave of the training..." (EV,IIIp237)
Disrobing is finalized by the monk clearly proclaiming
his change of status before another bhikkhu or lay person. Once the other
person understands his statement, he is no longer a bhikkhu. In Thailand
there is often a formal ceremony for this that ends with the former monk
undertaking the Five Precepts to replace the 227 Paa.timokkha Rule. (This
is also considered a step downwards, for the ideal way is certainly to
continue with the Holy Life 'for as long as life lasts'.)
In those countries where temporary ordinations are
'rites of passage', some men may ordain and disrobe several times in their
life -- before marriage and after retirement, for example. However, there
seems to be a tradition that bhikkhus do not disrobe and go forth again
more than seven times, but this rarely occurs.
If a bhikkhu commits a Defeater Offence there is no
need for him formally to disrobe because he is automatically expelled by
his wrongful action and is no longer a bhikkhu from that moment.[31]
He can never reordain during that lifetime.
This book is really only concerned with bhikkhus.
[27] In the Theravaada lineage it seems that
the bhikkhunii ordination lineage for women given by the Buddha --
equivalent to bhikkhu-ordination for men -- was lost in Sri Lanka with the
fall of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka in the eleventh century C.E. and finally
with the fall of Pagan in the thirteenth century C.E. Bhikkhuniis
originally observed 311 Paa.timokkha Rules, and there are whole sections
of the Paali Vinaya texts devoted to the their rules.
The Paali Vinaya texts are contained in five large
volumes. The Sutta- Vibha"nga division comprises the two books that
contain the 227 Paa.timokkha Rules (and those for bhikkhuniis)
with the stories of their origin and other explanations. The next two
books, the Mahaavagga and Cullavagga of the Khandhaka
division:
"...contain a great variety of procedural material
dealing with such important Sangha functions as giving the Going Forth
and Acceptance, the recitation of the Paa.timokkha and the keeping of
the Rains Residence, as well as a great deal of material relating to
bhikkhu's requisites, such as lodgings, medicines, clothing, etc." (HS
ch. 7)
The last book (the Parivaara) is a form of
appendix or supplement.
So the 227 Paa.timokkha Rules are a part of the greater
Vinaya. As Ven. Thiradhammo remarks:
"...the Paa.timokkha is more like the bare
bones or skeleton of the Vinaya Pi.taka [Basket]. Without reference to
the explanations of the Sutta-Vibha"nga or the elaboration of the
Khandhakas this skeleton has no viable application!" (HS ch.7)
The Buddha laid down that on full and new moon days all
the bhikkhus in residence in the same community must come together in a
formal meeting. If there is a quorum of at least four bhikkhus, they
should listen to the full Paa.timokkha Rule. A competent bhikkhu who has
learned this by heart will recite it in the Paali language for the
Community so that they can remind themselves of their responsibilities in
keeping the major 227 Rules.[28] The complete
recitation may take anywhere from thirty-five minutes to an hour,
depending on the skill of the reciting bhikkhu.
Before the Paa.timokkha recitation begins, each bhikkhu
should admit to any offences that he knows he has committed by formally
telling another monk (or monks). Once this is accomplished, the monk is
considered 'pure' and can listen to the recitation of the rules. (The
recitation includes questions, asking if any bhikkhu present is guilty of
the offences.) In many communities it is normal for each bhikkhu to make a
'general confession' of all possible offences to another bhikkhu before
listening to the Paa.timokkha recitation.
Different offences are of different seriousness but the
most common faults committed by carelessness or mistake can be cleared by
'confession' to another bhikkhu.[29]
Admitting to one's mistake and agreeing to do better in the future is the
way of growth and progress towards the elimination of all carelessness and
absentmindedness.
When a bhikkhu breaks his precepts or rules[30]
it is called an offence (aapatti). Such offences are committed by
action or word, although intention is (almost always) a decisive factor.
Just thinking about doing something wrong is unskillful and may lead to
future problems but it is not an offence. We will be examining some of
these rules in the following pages.
The new bhikkhu is told about the Paaraajika
Offences immediately after ordination, so he fully knows that they are the
most serious of all the offences and that the consequences of
transgressing them causes him to be no longer a bhikkhu. The nature of the
act that breaks any of these four Paaraajika rules clearly reveals
that the bhikkhu is no longer interested in developing the subtle and
refined way of Dhamma. The alternative of voluntarily disrobing is always
available if he feels he can no longer keep the Rule and this is
considered a much better way to handle this sort of overwhelming desire.
A monk automatically falls from being a bhikkhu[31]
by committing any of these four offences of Defeat: sexual-intercourse,
murder, major-theft, or falsely claiming supernormal abilities. A bhikkhu
who falls into any of these four Defeater offences thereby severs himself
irrevocably from the bhikkhu community and is no longer considered a
bhikkhu. The text portrays it with some vivid similes showing their
irreparable nature: as 'a man with his head cut off'; as 'a withered leaf
fallen from its stem'; as 'a palm tree cut down'; as 'a broken stone'. For
while all the other offences can be remedied, these four are terminal.
This is a very serious class of offence. However, any
offending bhikkhu can be rehabilitated through confession and supervised
probation. Finally, the bhikkhu needs to be reinstated by a specially
convened Community (Sa"ngha) meeting of at least twenty monks.[32]
c) The Two Aniyata -- Indefinite or
Undetermined
The Bhikkhu Community (together with the bhikkhu
concerned) have to decide which rule, if any, has been infringed.
d) The 30 Nissaggiya Paacittiya -- Confession
with Forfeiture
These rules are often concerned with bhikkhus being
greedy and excessive in their demand for offerings, or with bhikkhus
obtaining requisites through improper means. This oppresses lay donors
and, classically, led them to comment: "How can these recluses... not
knowing moderation ask for... ?" The rules of this category also guide
bhikkhus on how they should take care of requisites and restrain the
bhikkhus from obtaining items that by their very nature are inappropriate.
This offence can be cleared by forfeiture of the
improper item to another bhikkhu(s) and formal confession of the offence.
º The other classes of offences can usually be
resolved by a simple 'confession' to another bhikkhu(s). They are:
e) The 92 Paacittiya -- Expiation through
Confession
All these offences can be cleared through confession to
another bhikkhu.
f) The Four Paa.tidesaniiya -- to be
Acknowledged
g) The 75 Sekhiyavatta -- Trainings
These are normally classified as offences of
'wrong-doing' (dukka.ta). There are two aspects to these 'rules of
training' which are mainly about etiquette and good manners. First, they
are a 'gauge' for the bhikkhu's mindfulness so that he becomes aware of
his behavior. Second, there is the external perspective of an observer
watching the bhikkhu's activity and noticing the care and refinement with
which he moves, eats, etc. (For example, see Proper
Behavior Outside the Monastery.)
h) The Seven Adhikara.nasamatha -- Settlement
of Issues
These are general procedures (rather than offences) for
dealing with disputes, accusations, offences and duties. (See BMC
p.511)
º In the full Vinaya texts there is also the
class of 'grave' (thullaccaya) offence. This is a 'derived offence'
from the most serious rules of Paaraajika and Sa"nghaadisesa
(groups (a) and (b) above) to cover those circumstances when
the full offence is not quite carried out but the conduct is still grave
enough to be at fault. There is also the dubbhaasita offence of
wrong speech.
The Lord Buddha would not set down a rule until the
situation demanded it, so the Paali often supplies the 'origin story'
about how the different rules came about. Certain characters often
reappear in the thick of misdeeds and mischief. For instance, one keeps on
coming across Venerable Udaayin or the notorious 'group-of-six' monks.
Their behavior[33] required attention and
rectification from the Buddha, who then made it into a general rule for
all the bhikkhus:
"'In that case, bhikkhus, I will formulate a
training rule for the bhikkhus with ten aims in mind: the excellence of
the Community, the peace of the Community, the curbing of the shameless,
the comfort of the well-behaved bhikkhus, the restraint of [defilements]
related to the present life, the prevention of [defilements] related to
the next life, the arousing of faith in the faithless, the increase in
the faithful, the establishment of the true Dhamma, and the fostering of
discipline."' (BMC p.5)
Later circumstances may have required the Buddha to
make amendments or special exceptions and the rule would then have been
adjusted accordingly.[34] There are also many
other minor offences mentioned in the original Paali texts, which have
been further enlarged upon by later Commentaries. So the range of rules
has become very extensive, and their observance and interpretation
correspondingly wide.
º Note that it was often lay people's criticism
that brought the monk's wrong doings to the attention of the Buddha.
(However, also notice how such criticism was often too hasty in blaming
all monks rather than just the original delinquent.)
More than two and a half thousand years have passed
since the Vinaya rules were originally set down by the Buddha, and many
things have markedly changed since then. Should the rules be modernized
and brought up to date? How can this be done?
Already during His lifetime, the Buddha made special
allowances for different regions (or desa) outside the 'Middle
Country' of North India -- where He lived and taught. These dealt with
both the workings of the Community -- for example, a smaller quorum for
ordination is allowed in distant parts where there are fewer monks -- and
practical measures, such as special dispensation for footwear and bathing.
(See EV,II,p.173) So there is a precedent for adapting to
conditions, but this does not mean the abolishing of any rules.[6]
The Lord Buddha also left us a set of principles that
can still be used as a standard to judge new circumstances.[35]
These are known as 'The Great Standards'. Properly used they should
protect against a wholesale dilution of the Rule.[36]
This is how the Great Standards are formulated:
"Bhikkhus, whatever I have not objected to,
saying, 'This is not allowable,' if it fits in with what is not
allowable, if it goes against what is allowable, that is not allowable
for you.
"Whatever I have not objected to, saying, 'This is
not allowable,' if it fits in with what is allowable, if it goes against
what is not allowable, that is allowable for you.
"And whatever I have not permitted, saying, 'This
is allowable,' if it fits in with what is not allowable, if it goes
against what is allowable, that is not allowable for you.
"And whatever I have not permitted, saying, 'This
is allowable,' if it fits in with what is allowable, if it goes against
what is not allowable, that is allowable for you." (BMC p.27; see also
EV, II, p170)
º Treated with care, these Great Standards
should enable bhikkhus to live according to the Vinaya Rule in, for
example, isolated communities in non-Buddhist countries with non-tropical
climates. They form a touchstone for modern conditions and substances.
Among the unenlightened, finding fault with others
(rather than dealing with one's own problems) often seems to be one of our
most damaging habitual tendencies. We are able to twist whatever we want
to this purpose. (Including the book that you are reading.) For bhikkhus
there are many cautions:
"... those [monks] who follow the Vinaya
blindly... tend to be proud and arrogant, regarding themselves as better
behaved and more strict than others, and despising other bhikkhus as
inferior. This in itself is unbecoming and worthy of censure; and when
such bhikkhus have to associate with others whom they feel to be
deficient in observing the Vinaya, they do it grudgingly and with a
sense of distaste, and thus bring even more trouble on themselves.
"As for the bhikkhu who behaves in the correct
manner, he is bound to feel cheerful because he senses that his behavior
is becoming." (OP p.11)
"One who knows the Vinaya well, knows just how far
the Vinaya goes. He will thus know what is definite and what is open to
interpretation. He will know that a monk who practices contrary to what
is clearly stated in the Vinaya... is rightly called alajjii
[shameless]. But he will remain tolerant and in perfect harmony with
those who follow a different practice from his own on matters not
clearly covered by the Vinaya..."(AB)
Disparate interpretations of the Vinaya rules can lead
different communities into claiming that only their understanding is
correct and everyone else is wrong. (See Disputes.)
The Buddhist Monastic Code has this to say:
"There is, of course, a danger in being too
independent in interpreting the tradition, in that strongly held
opinions can lead to disharmony in the Community.... At the same
time,... there are many areas on which the Vibha"nga [section of the
Vinaya] is unclear and lends itself to a variety of equally valid
interpretations. For proof of this, we need only look at the various
traditions that have developed in the different Theravadin countries,
and even within each country. For some reason, although people tend to
be very tolerant of different interpretations of the Dhamma, they can be
very intolerant of different interpretations of the Vinaya and can get
into heated arguments over minor issues having very little to do with
the training of the mind."
Venerable Thanissaro continues by emphasizing:
".. . that any interpretation based on a sound
reading of the [Paali] Canon should be respected: that each bhikkhu
should follow the interpretations of the Community in which he is
living, as long as they do not conflict with the Canon, so as to avoid
conflict over minor matters in daily life; and that he should also show
respect for the differing interpretations of other Communities where
they too do not conflict with the Canon, so as to avoid the pitfalls of
pride and narrow-mindedness."(BMC p.15)
º In the modern West we find ourselves with the
unusual (unique?)[37] situation of having
Buddhist monasteries and temples of so many different countries and
traditions so close at hand. We should appreciate this abundance and
variety, deciding which establishment suits our needs and then not worry
about the shortcomings of other places.
Having established a background, we will now turn to
the rules themselves. Rather than following the traditional listing, we
will group rules (of varying seriousness) together under four headings,
which might pertain to, or be of interest to, lay people:
-
Harmlessness
-
Relationships
-
Possessions and Offerings
-
Right Livelihood for a Bhikkhu
-
Miscellaneous
For other Patimokkha Rules not covered here, see
Appendix B
º Throughout its history Buddhism has been
renowned for its tolerance and compassion towards all living beings and
this is reflected in the Buddhist monks' Vinaya. Their rules cover
situations of causing harm ranging from murder -- which is universally
accepted as a crime -- to such things as destroying plant life.
The third Defeater (Paaraajika) Offence deals
with murder. The original story describes how some bhikkhus wrongly
grasped the Buddha's meditation teaching on the loathsome aspects of the
body[38] and, falling into wrong view,
committed suicide or asked someone to end their lives for them. The rule
can be summarized like this:
"Intentionally bringing about the untimely death
of a human being, even if it is still a foetus, is [an offence of
Defeat.]" (Summary Paar. 3; BMC p.78)
º A bhikkhu must not recommend killing, suicide
or help arrange a murder.[39] Also, because
in this rule a human being is defined as beginning with the human foetus,
counting "from the time consciousness first arises in the womb", he must
not advise or arrange an abortion.
There is no offence if death is caused accidentally or
without intention.[40]
The previous offence was one of Defeat for murder
whereas this rule is one of Confession (paacittiya) for killing
animals. It originally arose because Venerable Udaayin, a frequent
delinquent, detested crows so much that he shot them with arrows and then
displayed their cut-off heads.
"Deliberately killing an animal -- or having it
killed -- is [an offence of Confession]."(Summary Paac. 61; BMC p.423)
'Animal' here is paano, literally 'having
breath'. The Commentary explains that it includes living beings down to
the size of a bedbug. Elsewhere the texts forbid the killing of "even an
ant".
º One of the bhikkhu's requisites is a water
filter. This is employed to prevent the killing of (visible) waterborne
creatures when making use of water from a well or stream. Practically,
this also leads bhikkhus to take extra care that they cover water jars or
regularly change water so that mosquito larvae do not have opportunity to
breed. This shows how the Vinaya Rule emphasizes care and forethought as
'preventive medicine'.
There are two rules concerned with bhikkhus and their
use of water:
One of these offences was originally perpetrated by the
notorious 'group-of-six' monks who used water that contained living
beings. It can be summarized:
"Using water, knowing that it contains living
beings that will die from one's use, is [an offence of Confession.]"
(Paac. 62; BMC p.424)
In the second offence the monks of AA.lavii were doing
repairs and 'sprinkled grass and clay' with water that they knew contained
life. It is summarized:
"If a bhikkhu knows that water contains living
beings but still pours it out onto grass or earth it is [an offence of
Confession.] Also pouring -- or having it poured -- into such water
anything that would kill the beings therein is [an offence of
Confession.]" (Paac. 20; See BMC p.319)
Intention is an essential factor here. For example, if
a bhikkhu only intends to sweep a path but accidentally kills ants in the
process, there is no offence because it is not deliberate. However,
ordering an animal to be killed (and it is) is an offence. (Also, if he
suspects that that animal was killed to provide him with food, it is an
offence to eat it. See Meat-eating.)
º The common belief at the time of the Buddha
was that plants (and even soil) were 'one-facultied life'. Today we have
ecologically 'green' beliefs that are often equivalent -- at least they
seem to lead to much the same attitudes.[41]
(In Thailand, forest monks are well known as the best protectors of the
jungle.)
The eleventh Confession offence concerns destroying
plant life. It originated because a bhikkhu harmed 'one-facultied life' by
cutting down trees. He continued to cut down a tree even when the
tree-deva[42] asked him to stop, so she
went and complained to the Buddha. This led to lay criticism of such
behavior and a rule was set down:
"Intentionally damaging or destroying a living
plant is [an offence of Confession.]"(Summary Paac. 11; See BMC p.294)
Therefore destroying a living plant -- for instance,
felling a tree, uprooting a flower, burning grass -- is a Confession
offence; as is picking fruit from a tree, a flower from a bush, etc. It is
an offence of wrong-doing (dukka.ta) to damage or destroy fertile
seeds or pips, or viable seedlings. (See Kappiya).
º Bhikkhus who live in tropical forest
monasteries constantly have to protect both the jungle and themselves.
When paths are overgrown, snakes and other dangerous 'creepy-crawlies' can
be trodden on -- and bite back! There also may be a need for firebreaks.
One way that forest monks cope with this is a daily routine of sweeping
the paths. However they are not allowed to dig or clear the land.
The tenth Confession offence arose when bhikkhus dug
the ground and got others to dig, and the local people criticized them
because they considered the earth to be 'one-facultied life'. The rule is
phrased like this:
"Should any bhikkhu dig soil or have it dug, it is
[an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 10; BMC p.292)
Digging, breaking the surface of the earth, lighting a
fire on it, pounding a stake into it are all disallowed. (If such 'earth'
is more gravel or sand than 'soil' -- and has no living creatures in it --
it may then be dug.)
º It is, however, allowable for monks to hint to
laypeople or novices about what needs doing as long as the words or
gestures fall short of a command. When bhikkhus need paths to be cleared,
necessary work done on the ground, firebreaks made, etc., any lay
attendant wanting to help should listen out for hints and indications: 'A
post hole dug over there would be useful'; 'make this ground allowable',
etc. What is needed can then be clarified.
º One practical and long term effect of these
rules is that they have steered bhikkhus away from involvement in
agriculture and land ownership. Such a development would also have
isolated bhikkhus from the lay community because they would no longer have
needed to depend on alms food.
Bhikkhus cannot live in complete isolation from lay
people, for the mutual support relationship is intrinsic to their way of
life. However, it should never become an intimate relationship for this
goes against the whole purpose of leaving the 'family life' with its
endless 'enclosed' complications.[43]
The 'Holy Life' or Brahmacariya is one that
checks the display of any form of sexual desire through the actions and
speech of the bhikkhu. (In fact restraint from gross sexual misconduct is
already part of the Five Precepts.[4] The
Eight and Ten Precepts immediately refine this and then the Vinaya manages
it with even greater subtlety.) One's Dhamma life can then advance towards
the ending of all desire through mind development and meditation. The most
potent object for such sexual desire, that which the mind is most
tenaciously grasping after, is usually associated with the opposite sex,
so many rules involve this relationship.[44]
º The first offence of all the 227 listed rules
of the Paa.timokkha concerns a bhikkhu engaging in sexual intercourse. It
remains a hot issue, perhaps even more so today, going by the number of
sexual scandals that rock the Buddhist religious world in both the East
and the West. As Venerable Thiradhammo writes:
"While some of the guidelines may seem somewhat
rigid or prudish, it is important to reflect upon the volatility and
durability of rumour, even if untrue. The incessant sex-scandals in
religious circles may provide a sufficient incentive to encourage the
greatest measure of prevention and discretion." (HS ch.13)
The rule was originally laid down because of Venerable
Sudinna. He was the son of a rich merchant, who left home to become a
bhikkhu only after great opposition from his family. He went away to
practice Dhamma and when he came back to visit sometime later, his parents
were overjoyed to see him and plotted to lure him back into the lay life
again. They invited him for a meal and then laid out their wealth in front
of him, piled up in two huge heaps of gold, while the wife he had left
behind dressed herself in her most irresistibly alluring way. Venerable
Sudinna remained unmoved by all of this. After telling them to throw the
gold away in the river, he called his former wife, "Sister". Nevertheless,
when his elderly mother pleaded with him at least to give them an heir, he
foolishly gave in and had sexual intercourse with his former wife.
This First Defeater Offence is summarized:
"A bhikkhu who engages in any form of sexual
intercourse is Defeated." (Paar. 1; See BMC p.45)
Every form and variety of sexual intercourse with
sexual penetration -- whether genital, oral or anal, whether with woman,
man or animal -- is forbidden. The penalty is the heaviest one of
Paaraajika or Defeat.
º The modern West has stories of sexual
harassment, so the ways that the Buddha dealt with such matters should not
seem so very strange.
If a bhikkhu touches a woman in a sexual way, he
commits a very serious offence requiring formal meetings of the Community
and probation (Sa"nghaadisesa). The
scrupulous bhikkhu wants to remain above suspicion so, if he can, he will
avoid all physical contact. (Hence his attitude to shaking hands. This
also explains why in Thailand a receiving cloth is used to receive
offerings from women. (See EN 85)
The rule was first set down by the Buddha after a
brahman and his wife had gone to inspect Ven. Udaayin's fine dwelling. As
Ven. Udaayin was showing them around, he came up behind the lady and
"rubbed up against her limb by limb". After they had left, the husband
praised Ven. Udaayin but the wife was critical and explained what had
happened. The brahman then complained, "Isn't it even possible to take
one's wife to a monastery without her being molested?" This rule was then
set down:
"Should any bhikkhu, overcome by lust, with
altered mind, engage in bodily contact with a woman, or in holding her
hand, holding a lock of her hair, or caressing any of her limbs, it
entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community."(Sa"ngh. 2;
BMC p.100)
To be at fault, the bhikkhu must usually do some action
to bring contact with a woman while lust overcomes his mind.[45]
If he accidentally stumbles and bumps into a woman or vice-versa, or if he
is accosted by a woman, as long as there is no intention to come into
lustful contact there is no offence. However, the average bhikkhu's mind
tends to be so quick and unruly -- he is, after all, still in training and
therefore unenlightened -- that he may prefer to be super-cautious about
such situations.
If a bhikkhu touches his mother out of affection, then
this is still an offence but the lesser one of wrong-doing (dukka.ta).
[46] While gratitude to parents was strongly
emphasized by the Buddha, the bhikkhu having left the home-life and his
family should not cling to worldly relationships. The only true way for
him to fulfill his filial obligations is by gaining insight into Dhamma
and then teaching his parents.
If a bhikkhu is acting with lustful intentions, he
incurs a grave (thullaccaaya) offence for making bodily contact
with a pa.n.daka ('sex- aberrant') and an offence of wrong-doing
for contact with a male. (See BMC p.103)
º The previous rules dealt with the bhikkhu's
physical actions, the next two rules are offences -- again of the very
serious category -- that concern his wrong speech towards women.
This rule came into being when many women visitors came
together to look over Ven. Udaayin's dwelling. He spoke to them in a lewd,
flirtatious way so that some of them said, "It is improper. Even from our
husbands we wouldn't like to hear this sort of thing". Therefore, the
Buddha laid down this rule:
"Should any bhikkhu, overcome by lust, with
altered mind, address lewd words to a woman in the manner of young men
to a young woman alluding to sexual intercourse, it entails initial and
subsequent meetings of the Community." (Sa"ngh. 3; BMC p.110)
º The following rule is very relevant today when
some misguidedly believe that submitting to sex with spiritual teachers
can help in their spiritual development.
Again, it was originally a lustful Ven. Udaayin who was
the cause of this offence. This time, he suggested to a beautiful and
devout woman follower that she make a 'special offering' to him, that of
sexual intercourse. The Buddha then set forth this rule:
"Telling a woman that she would benefit from
having sexual intercourse with oneself is [an offence requiring initial
and subsequent meetings of the Community.]" (Summary[47]
Sa"ngh. 4; BMC p.117)
º The major issue today seems more to center
around divorce and the breakdown of marriage rather than arranging
marriages. However one should note how these affairs can involve the
bhikkhu and how he should guard against becoming too drawn in. (It is also
noteworthy that this is considered one of the most serious offences.)
Ven. Udaayin caused this rule to be set down because he
involved himself in arranging many marriages and liaisons. When some of
these failed, they blamed him for the failure. The offence is summarized:
"Should any bhikkhu engage in conveying a man's
intentions to a woman or a woman's intentions to a man, proposing
marriage or paramourage -- even if only for a momentary liaison -- it
entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community."(Sa"ngh. 5;
BMC p.117)
A bhikkhu should not officiate at weddings,[48]
except perhaps to chant a blessing afterwards and encourage the newly
married couple to lead virtuous and faithful lives together based in
generosity, virtue and meditation. He also has to be circumspect when
counselling couples. (There is no offence in reconciling a married but
estranged couple as long as they are not yet divorced.)
º A bhikkhu not only has to be impeccable but
also must be seen to be so. He sets an example for everyone and therefore
must be beyond reproach. Any doubtful situations have to be clarified,
which is how the next rules came about. Some knowledge of these rules may
also help to explain the sometimes seemingly antisocial attitude of some
bhikkhus. (When bhikkhus are reluctant to enter into too private a
conversation, it may reflect the unsuitability of the time and place for
such a meeting.)
There are two aspects to these particular rules:
physical closeness and private conversation (see below
Talking Privately). If a woman sees a monk who
is sitting alone and she wants to sit close to him, or she wants to have a
one-to-one conversation with him, the following rules have to be taken
into account.
First, the rules dealing with intimate proximity:
The Two Aniyata, Indefinite or Undetermined
Cases, were formulated after Ven. Udaayin went to visit a recently married
young woman. He sat privately with her, in a secluded place, just the two
of them, talking about worldly affairs. The respected female lay-follower,
Visaakhaa, saw them sitting there and said to Ven. Udaayin, "This is
improper, Ven. Sir, and unsuitable, that the master should sit in private
like this. Although, Ven. Sir, the master may have no desire for sexual
intercourse, there are unbelieving people who are difficult to convince."
The Buddha therefore set this down:
"Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a
woman in a seat secluded enough to lend itself (to the sexual act), so
that a female lay follower whose word can be trusted,[49]
having seen (them), might describe it as constituting any of the three
cases -- involving either Defeat, [Community Meetings], or [Confession]
-- then the bhikkhu, acknowledging having sat (there), may be dealt with
for any of the three cases... or he may be dealt with for whichever case
the female lay follower described. This case is undetermined."(Aniyata
1; BMC p.157)
The Second Indefinite Offence is similar to the first,
except that the place is less secluded and therefore not suitable for
sexual intercourse although it could still be grounds for the other sexual
offences, such as "addressing a woman with lewd words".
º When a bhikkhu intentionally sits alone with a
woman in a secluded or private place (as in the above two rules) it can
lead on to more intimate behavior or at least to misunderstandings from
unexpected onlookers. To preclude such problems a bhikkhu needs a
companion or 'chaperone'.[50]
A 'secluded place' is where a monk and women can sit
(or lie down) on a seat together in a place that is hidden from view and
out of earshot, for example, a private room or behind a wall or hedge. In
such circumstances, a man or boy old enough to understand what is
inappropriate conduct must be also present as chaperone. Therefore, if a
woman -- or women, for according to this particular rule (Aniyata
1) it does not matter how many there are -- sees a bhikkhu sitting alone
in such a very secluded place, she should remember about this rule and not
go and sit with him but await a more suitable time or find a male to act
as chaperone.
A less secluded but still 'private place' (Aniyata
2) would be, for example, a bench in a deserted park or a glassed-in porch
or any other place that is private but not secluded enough for sexual
intercourse. (BMC p.389) In this case, the Commentary allows the
chaperone to be either male or female but they must be someone who knows
'what is an
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